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کارآفرینی: مولد، غیرمولد، و مخرب - با چه چیزی ارتباط دارد؟
عنوان انگلیسی مقاله:
Entrepreneurship: Productive, unproductive, and destructive—Relative to what?
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مقدمه انگلیسی مقاله:
1. Introduction
Over twenty-five years after its original publication, Baumol's (1996) trichotomy of productive, unproductive, and destructive entrepreneurship is seminal to the entrepreneurship literature. Productive entrepreneurship is that which contributes to societal wellbeing, including the introduction of new products or new production processes. Unproductive entrepreneurship is aimed at obtaining transfers, typically via rent-seeking or violence. Entrepreneurship becomes destructive when resources are expended to capture rents or expropriate wealth. Baumol suggests that the total quantity of entrepreneurial activity is relatively stable, but the allocation of entrepreneurial resources varies considerably across societies. The variation in entrepreneurial activity is determined by the “set of rules” governing social interaction—in other words, the institutional framework. He thus provides a meta-view of entrepreneurship. Where the rules of the game facilitate market-based innovation, entrepreneurs engage in productive activity; where the rules facilitate corruption or rent-seeking, entrepreneurs choose unproductive and destructive ends (Boettke and Coyne, 2003, 2009). Empirical analysis broadly affirms Baumol's insights (Murphy et al., 1991; Sobel, 2008). Furthermore, a large body of literature documents that productive entrepreneurial activity has massive implications for economic development; indeed, productive entrepreneurship captures the very essence of economic growth (Holcombe, 1998). Meanwhile, barriers to wealth-creation (e.g., the regulation of entry) have deleterious consequences (Djankov et al., 2002). Another foundational figure in modern entrepreneurship scholarship, Israel Kirzner, has written several essays on the relationship between entrepreneurship and public policy (Kirzner, 1979, 1982). Kirzner argues that an institutional environment of property rights, market prices, and the rule of law allows for the entrepreneurial discovery of opportunities that are both privately and socially value-creating. The opportunities to which entrepreneurs are alert are “profit” opportunities precisely because they improve social coordination, by directing prices toward market equilibrium; losses are downplayed this framework (Foss and Klein, 2010, p. 110). Meanwhile, socialism, cronyism, and interventionism all hamper this entrepreneurial discovery. Like Baumol, then, Kirzner suggests that entrepreneurship within good (poor) institutional environments improves (reduces) the well-being of society at large.1 At the economy-level, both of the above frameworks usefully identify the seminal role of institutions in the entrepreneur's creation of social value. Indeed, the aggregate effect of entrepreneurship within market institutions is productive: society is made better off whilst individuals aim to capture private value via production and exchange. At the level of the individual entrepreneur or venture, however, this distinction is theoretically ambiguous or even misleading. Since institutions constrain the individual's opportunities, any given entrepreneur or venture may create or destroy social value in any institutional context. When the analysis is restricted to relevant alternatives for the actor (e.g., the individual's opportunity cost), many actions that appear “unproductive” are indeed “productive”—and vice versa. The above considerations beg a broader question: under what conditions does entrepreneurship create social value? While this question has been studied in depth at the economy level (e.g., the frameworks above), the relationship between this work and individual entrepreneurs or ventures is often unclear. We suggest that social value creation is only determined relative to the individual's next best alternative, and that institutions constrain the relevant alternatives. This yields two implications. First, society is better off when entrepreneurs navigate poor institutions relative to reduced entrepreneurial activity, and society becomes increasingly better off as entrepreneurs interact with better institutions. Second, social value need not be created by entrepreneurs engaging in seemingly “productive” activity (e.g., startup activity, research and development), particularly when those activities are publicly funded. The paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 describes how entrepreneurs can navigate cumbersome institutions to create social value. Section 3 highlights the ambiguous social value of subsidized entrepreneurial activity. Section 4 offers a discussion. Section 5 concludes.
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کلمات کلیدی:
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