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جایگزینی زمان و اثرات شبکه با استفاده از سیاست های فناوری نانو برای دانشگاه های ایالات متحده
عنوان انگلیسی مقاله:
Time substitution and network effects with an application to nanobiotechnology policy for US universities
سال انتشار : 2016
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بخشی از مقاله انگلیسی:
2. Economic returns to science research
The latter part of the 1970s saw the US undergo a period of stagflation. From 1962 to 1976 annual labor productivity growth averaged 2.5% but fell to only 0.5% during 1976 to1980 (Economic Report of the President [2]). Concerns about slow productivity growth led Congress to pass the Bayh–Dole Act in 1980. This Act allowed universities to patent and license research results that had been subsidized through federal funding. Before passage of the Bayh–Dole Act, any inventions that grew out of federally sponsored research became property of the federal government. The Act was not without its critics as some people argued that university research might switch focus from basic research to applied research. For instance, Boldrin and Levine [6] and Just and Huffman [7] presented models showing that when universities are granted monopoly power via patents, the production of new knowledge falls as resources are reallocated toward industrial applications. Weber and Xia [4] found supporting evidence for this theory in the university production of nanobiotechnology patents and publications. Using estimates of the Morishima elasticities of transformation, Weber and Xia [4] found that when the quantity of patents increases relative to publications, the shadow revenue share of publications falls relative to patents. However, other researchers found that university patenting activities tended to complement, rather than substitute for basic research (Thursby and Thursby [8], Azoulay et al. [9], Fabrizio and DeMinin [10]). One rationale for the public funding of research is that knowledge is a public good – both non-rival and non-excludable – and will be under-produced in private settings since private actors cannot fully capture its returns. Adams [11] presented evidence indicating a time lag of 15 to 20 years between the production of basic research and its embodiment in new technologies. He also suggested that about 15% of the productivity slowdown in the 1970s could be attributed to World War II which siphoned scientists and engineers into the war effort. In a thorough review of the literature on the economic benefits of private and publicly funded basic research Salter and Martin [12] cite evidence that the social returns to private R&D spending tend to be 2–5 times higher than the private returns. In addition, they identify six categories that embody the economic returns to publicly funded research: new knowledge, more skilled workers, new scientific instruments, enhanced network effects and social interactions between researchers and the private sector, an increased capacity to solve new problems, and new firms spawned by the research. To measure potential spillovers from agricultural R&D on agricultural productivity Plastina and Fulginiti [13] estimated a stochastic cost function for 48 states during the 1949–1991 period. Costs are dependent on the state’s own R&D stock and the stock of R&D from adjacent states with increases in R&D from neighboring states causing declines in the own state’s costs of production. The findings indicate an average 17% internal rate of return for the state’s own R&D funding and a 29% social rate of return.
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کلمات کلیدی:
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