دانلود رایگان مقاله لاتین اکولوژیکی انسان از سایت الزویر
عنوان فارسی مقاله:
تاثیر اکولوژیکی انسان و سگ در حیات وحش در مناطق حفاظت شده در شرق، شمال امریکا
عنوان انگلیسی مقاله:
The ecological impact of humans and dogs on wildlife in protected areas in eastern North America
سال انتشار : 2016
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مقدمه انگلیسی مقاله:
1. Introduction
The establishment of protected areas is a key strategy for preserving biodiversity. Although they preserve habitat, protected areas typically do not eliminate human presence. On the contrary, people visit protected areas an estimated 8 billion times around the world every year, including 2 billion in the United States (Balmford et al., 2015). Nature recreation is important for conservation because it helps connect people with nature and broadens the constituency that values protecting land from development (Balmford et al., 2002; Wells and Lekies, 2006). However, human use of these areas can cause disturbance to wildlife, threatening the biodiversity preservation goals of protected areas. Disturbance of wildlife by recreationists may provoke anti-predator responses such as fleeing, increasing vigilance, and changes in habitat use (Frid and Dill, 2002). Since there is a trade-off between avoiding a perceived risk and other fitness-enhancing activities, like feeding and finding a mate, disturbances by recreationalists can reduce animal fitness by disrupting optimal feeding, parental care, or mate choice (Beale, 2007; Beale and Monaghan, 2004; Frid and Dill, 2002). The risk-disturbance hypothesis provides a framework for understanding wildlife-human interactions, where responses by disturbed animals can be directly attributed to disturbance stimuli, responses being stronger when perceived risk is greater (Frid and Dill, 2002). Human-caused disturbance can be compounded in areas that allow hunting (Frid and Dill, 2002) and if humans are accompanied by dogs (Canis familiaris) (Banks and Bryant, 2007; Miller et al., 2001; Weston and Stankowich, 2014). There are an estimated 78 million domestic dogs living in the United States (Gompper, 2014) and many owners visit protected areas with their dogs each year (Hughes and MacDonald, 2013). Protected areas often have leash laws which couldlimit the interactions of dogs with wildlife, while others prohibit the dogs altogether. However, little data exist to evaluate the effectiveness of these policies in terms of ecological impacts, the extent to which owners obey leash laws, or how often dogs move off-trail and interact with wildlife (Ritchie et al., 2014; Vanak et al., 2014). While the lethal impacts of dogs on wildlife have been shown (Young et al., 2011), the indirect effects of dogs on vigilance (Vanak et al., 2009), feeding rates (Vanak et al., 2009), space use (Grignolio et al., 2011) and fecundity (Sheriff et al., 2009) of native wildlife is of equal concern. In a review of 69 peer-reviewed studies on dog-wildlife interactions, only three concluded that dogs had no impact (Hughes and MacDonald, 2013). As development encroaches around protected areas in the United States and human use of these areas increases (Radeloff et al., 2010), understanding the impacts of recreation on wildlife is a key priority. Our previous research found that hiking and managed hunting did have an effect on mammal distribution, though to a lesser extent than habitat, however an analysis of the effect of dogs as an agent of disturbance was not considered (Kays et al., 2016). Thus, in this study we used the same camera trapping survey to investigate the use of protected areas by humans and dogs in the eastern United States. We predicted that most humans and dogs would be found on trails, and that leash laws would significantly decrease off-trail dog activity. To put the effects of humans and dogs in perspective, we compared the strength of their indirect ecological effects on wildlife with those of the second largest natural predator, coyotes (Canis latrans). We quantified these effects by evaluating the spatial and temporal avoidance of potential predators by three common prey species that vary in activity patterns (crepuscular, diurnal, nocturnal): white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and northern raccoon (Procyon lotor). We also examined the effect of predator presence on whitetailed deer vigilance. Based on the risk-disturbance hypothesis, we predicted that wildlife would respond to humans, dogs and coyotes as predators and that the level of the response would be relative to the perceived risk. Specifically, we expected humans to be the highest perceived risk, given that humans actively hunt deer throughout the region. Likewise, we expected humans with dogs to be perceived as a greater risk than humans without dogs given the additional perceived risk imposed by dogs. We expected unattended dogs and coyotes to be perceived as a similar level of risk given their similar size and less predictable movement patterns off trails.
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کلمات کلیدی:
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