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عنوان فارسی مقاله:
مقاومت در برابر استخراج معدن: بررسی
عنوان انگلیسی مقاله:
Resistance to mining: A review
سال انتشار : 2017
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مقدمه انگلیسی مقاله:
1. Introduction
Why and how do communities resist mining, and how do their forms of resistance change over time? Answering this question is important for studies of ecological distribution conflicts (EDC) and of the changing nature of commodity frontiers. EDCs are increasing due to the growing metabolism of society that is demanding more energy and material resources (Martinez-Alier, 2003). Even a non-growing economy, if based on current technology, would need “fresh” inputs of fossil fuels and minerals. The commodity frontier in mining has been expanding especially to the global South due to structural adjustment plans and mining law reforms, rising mineral prices from the mid- 1990s to the mid-2010s (with a temporary drop in 2008), strong equity markets, and low domestic interest rates in core economies (Bridge, 2004; Campbell, 2009; Gordon and Webber, 2008). From the year 2000, the emergence of Asian economies and specially China has caused a steady and rising demand for natural resources worldwide (Muradian et al., 2012) pushing further the commodity frontier. India’s increase in material consumption has relied so far on internal supplies, causing many resource extraction conflicts nationally (Vagholikar and Dutta, 2003). Also in the last decade speculative trading activities with hedge funds have provoked investment booms pushing mining exploration projects in many parts of the world (see, for the effect in different countries, Tavasci and Ventimiglia, 2011; Fraser and Larmer, 2010; Conde and Kallis, 2012). Industry technological advances are making reserves accessible that were previously not economically viable (Mudd, 2007). Companies go deeper and farther, into more ecologically and sometimes socially vulnerable areas to extract the remaining resources. On many occasions these areas are inhabited by (indigenous and non-indigenous) communities who suffer the burdens of pollution and lack of access to basic resources due to the unequal distribution of power and income, and social inequalities of ethnicity, caste, social class and gender (Bury, 2007; Martinez-Alier, 2003; Martínez Alier et al., 2014b) leading to the formation of EDC. The term EDC was coined by Martinez-Alier and O'Connor (1996) to describe social conflicts born from the unfair access to natural resources and the unjust burdens of pollution. These two authors, trained as economists, were inspired by the term ‘economic distribution conflicts’ in political economy that describes conflicts between capital and labour. For instance, claims for higher wages from mining unions opposing company owners - that don't always go in hand with environmental compliance (Martinez-Alier, 2003). ‘Ecological distribution conflicts' is then a term for collective claims against environmental injustices. For instance, a mine may be polluting a river yet this damage is not valued in the market and those impacted are not compensated (as studied by Bebbington et al., 2008a). Unfairecological distribution is inherent to capitalism, defined by Kapp (1950) as a system of cost-shifting. In environmental neoclassical economics, the preferred terms are “market failure” and “externalities”, a terminology that implies that such externalities could be valued in monetary terms and internalised into the price system. If we accept economic commensuration and reject incommensurability of values (MartinezAlier et al., 1998), ‘equivalent’ eco-compensation mechanisms could be introduced. Instead ecological economics and political ecology advocate the acceptance of different valuation languages to understand such conflicts and the need to take them into account through genuine participatory processes (Agarwal, 2001; Zografos and Howarth, 2010). There are local as well as global distribution conflicts; whilst many of them occur between the global South and the global North (an Australian or Chinese mining company operating in Namibia), many are local conflicts within a short commodity chain (e.g. on local sand and gravel extraction for nearby cement factory) (Martinez-Alier, 2004). From a social metabolic perspective we can classify EDCs through the stages of a commodity chain; conflicts can take place during the extraction of energy carriers or other materials, transportation and production of goods, or in the final disposal of waste. This review focuses only on the EDCs that emerge at the first stage of the commodity chain; the extraction and processing of minerals and the resistance that emerges in these areas.
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کلمات کلیدی:
Resistance to Mining in El Salvador | ReVista https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/resistance-mining-el-salvador Now, mining is causing social conflict and violence in many of the same communities. Photo courtesy of Creative Commons A Battle for Water, Life, and National ... Indigenous Communities' Resistance to Corporate Mining in the ... www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10402659.2016.1130373?src=recsys Feb 16, 2016 - On September 1, 2015, three highly respected leaders of the Lumad, non-Muslim and non-Christian indigenous peoples in the island of ... Atkinson resistance - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atkinson_resistance Atkinson resistance is commonly used in mine ventilation to characterise the resistance to airflow of a duct of irregular size and shape, such as a mine roadway. Canada's Mining Industry and Popular Resistance | Global Research ... www.globalresearch.ca/canadas-mining-industry-and-popular-resistance/5541894 Aug 21, 2016 - Canada is one of the world's centres of the mining and extractive sector. Toronto is the centre of the trade in mining stocks and in financing ... Resistance to mining: A review - ICTA - Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia ... ictaweb.uab.cat/pubs_detail.php?id=1654 Conde M. "Resistance to mining: A review". Ecological Economics. 2017, vol. 132, p. Pages 80–90. Abstract. This academic review of more than 200 articles, ... ACHILLES HEEL - Crop resistance improvement by mining natural ... www.slcu.cam.ac.uk/research/schornack-group/achilles-heel Increasing crop yield to feed the world is a grand challenge of the 21st century but it is hampered by diseases caused by filamentous plant pathogens. The arms ... Mining in South Africa: radical resistance | openDemocracy https://www.opendemocracy.net/sobantu.../mining-in-south-africa-radical-resistance Feb 19, 2017 - The oppression and exploitation of mining communities means that even within our democracy, the legacy of the apartheid and colonial era ... Support Community Rights: Mining Resistance | Indiegogo https://www.indiegogo.com/projects/support-community-rights-mining-resistance Support educational exchange for community leaders resisting a gold mine in Northeast Thailand.
